Prognostic value of muscle mass assessed by DEXA in elderly hospitalized patients.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze the prognostic value of lean mass measured by DEXA and to compare it with lean muscle mass assessed by anthropometrics, calf circumference, subjective assessment and with physical muscle function tests in elderly hospitalized patients. METHODS: We study 187 hospitalized patients aged ≥65 years. We assessed nutrition by anthropometrics, mid arm muscle area, triceps skinfold and calf circumference, by subjective nutritional assessment and by DEXA, lean and fat mass and bone mineral density (BMD); muscle function by handgrip strength, gait speed, standing balance and stand-up test; disability and activities of daily living and the clinical frailty score; and comorbidity by Charlson index. Outcomes were assessed by mortality at 100 days and long-term follow up. RESULTS: Male sex showed higher comorbidity and mortality although females were older, with decreased muscle mass and function, disabled and frailer. Long term mortality was also related to decreased lean mass evaluated by subjective assessment, midarm anthropometry, calf circumference and DEXA (appendicular lean and fat mass and BMD); muscle function impairment assessed by gait speed, standing balance and stand-up test; frailty; disability and comorbidity. Variables with long term independent predictive value were comorbidity, inability to perform any of the muscle function tests: gait speed, standing balance and stand-up; subjective nutritional score, appendicular lean mass under the 10th percentile and male sex. CONCLUSIONS: Females are older and frailer but with lower comorbidity; they showed a better survival. The best predictive mortality factor was comorbidity, but DEXA appendicular lean mass under the 10th percentile showed an independent and high predictive value on mortality.

Handgrip strength and lean mass are independently related to brain atrophy among alcoholics.

BACKGROUND: In neurodegenerative disorders or in normal aging humans a relationship between muscle mass and/or performance and brain volume was observed, that is not dependent on age or other confounding factors. The aim of the present study is to analyse the relationship between lean mass and handgrip strength in alcoholics, who frequently show brain and muscle atrophy. METHODS: It was included 101 male patients aged 58.35 ± 11.59 years, and 44 controls, all of them workers of our hospital, drinkers of less than 20 g ethanol/day, of similar age. Patients and controls underwent dominant handgrip assessment with a Collins' dynamometer, whole body composition analysis by densitometry, and brain computed tomography (CT) examination, with further calculation of several indices indicative of brain atrophy. MAIN RESULTS: 1) Brain atrophy is a very common finding among alcoholics, both among cirrhotics and non-cirrhotics. 2) Alcoholics show a marked reduction in handgrip strength, and also in lean mass, especially at the arms and legs -but not in the trunk, even if patients with ascites were excluded.3) There is a relationship between reduced lean mass and brain atrophy, and a close correlation between handgrip strength and brain atrophy, that is independent of age and liver function. 4) Total fat amount is not different among alcoholics and controls, but there are marked differences in fat distribution: alcoholics show less fat in arms, but more fat in trunk, so that if we calculate the peripheral fat/trunk fat index, marked differences were observed among alcoholics and controls. Neither total fat nor fat distribution were related to brain atrophy. CONCLUSION: among alcoholics, as in other neurodegenerative conditions, there is a relationship between reduced lean mass and brain atrophy, and a close correlation between handgrip strength and brain atrophy, that is independent of age, duration of ethanol consumption and liver function.

Soluble Klotho and Brain Atrophy in Alcoholism.

AIM: Fibroblast growth factor (FGF-23) and α-Klotho (Klotho) levels may be altered in inflammatory conditions, possibly as compensatory mechanisms. Klotho exerts a protective effect on neurodegeneration and improves learning and cognition. No data exist about the association of Klotho and FGF-23 levels with brain atrophy observed in alcoholics. The aim of this study is to explore these relationships. SHORT SUMMARY: FGF-23 and Klotho levels are altered in inflammation, possibly as compensatory mechanisms. Klotho enhances learning, but its role in ethanol-mediated brain atrophy is unknown. We found higher FGF-23 and lower Klotho levels in 131 alcoholics compared with 41 controls. Among cirrhotics, Klotho was higher and inversely related to brain atrophy. METHODS: The study was performed on 131 alcoholic patients (54 cirrhotics) and 41 age- and sex-matched controls, in whom a brain computed tomography (CT) was performed and several indices were calculated. RESULTS: Marked brain atrophy was observed among patients when compared with controls. Patients also showed higher FGF-23 and lower Klotho values. However, among cirrhotics, Klotho values were higher. Klotho was inversely related to brain atrophy (for instance, ventricular index (ρ = -0.23, P = 0.008)), especially in cirrhotics. Klotho was also directly related to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha (ρ = 0.22; P = 0.026) and inversely to transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß (ρ = -0.34; P = 0.002), but not to C-reactive protein (CRP) or malondialdehyde levels. FGF-23 was also higher among cirrhotics but showed no association with CT indices. CONCLUSIONS: Klotho showed higher values among cirrhotics, and was inversely related to brain atrophy. FGF-23, although high among patients, especially cirrhotics, did not show any association with brain atrophy. Some inflammatory markers or cytokines, such as CRP or TGF-ß were related to brain atrophy.

Digit ratios among the modern population of the Canary Islands

Sexual differences in the index to ring finger length ratio (2D:4D ratio) have been observed since more than 150 years ago, and they are already present in the foetus. Homeobox genes, which also control the differentiation of testes and ovaries, are involved in finger conformation, which is subjected to the influence of testosterone and estrogen levels. In general, women show larger 2D:4D digit ratios, although differences between sexes are subjected to ethnic variations. This study was performed in order to analyse the absolute values of several digit ratios (2D:4D; 4D:3D; 2D:3D) among 164 young adults of Tenerife (101 women). Finger lengths were directly measured dorsally using a calliper with an accuracy level of 0.01 mm. Dorsal digit lengths were defined as the distance between the fingertip and the dorsal base of the proximal phalanx, in a position in which fingers and palms formed an angle of 90º. We found that 2D:4D of both hands (for instance, women=0.9631 ± 0.02647; men= 0.9535 ± 0.02507 for the left 2D:4D ratios), the left 2D:3D (0.9063 ± 0.02216 in women; 0.8980 ± 0.01931 among men) and the right 4D:3D ratios (0.9377 ± 0.03625 among women vs 0.9471 ± 0.02138 among men) were significantly different among men and women. The magnitude of the difference among sexes is similar to that reported for other populations, and they allow for the elaboration of a discriminant function with an accuracy of 60.4%, that reaches 86% if stature is also included. We applied this discriminant function to a test group composed of 36 randomly selected women and 24 men, obtaining an accuracy of 58.33% and 81.67%, respectively

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Lipid profile and bone mineral density in heavy alcoholics.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Some studies have illustrated the association between serum lipid profile and bone mineral density (BMD) or fractures. None of these studies was performed among alcoholics, despite the fact that alcoholism may affect both bone mass and lipid metabolism. We here analyse the relationship of serum lipid profile with bone mass among a population of 280 heavy alcoholics (29 women). METHODS: patients underwent a densitometric assessment of BMD and determination of a serum lipid panel. Castelli index (Total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol) and the LDL/HDL cholesterol index were calculated. RESULTS: There was a direct correlation between both total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol and femoral neck (r = 0.17 and r = 0.20, respectively) and lumbar spine (r = 0.16 and r = 0.20) T score, total BMD (r = 0.14 and r = 0.18) or pelvis BMD (r = 0.16 and r = 0.23; p < 0.025 in all cases). HDL-cholesterol showed no relationship with BMD. Serum triglycerides were also directly related to T score at the lumbar spine (ρ = 0.13; p = 0.032) and pelvis BMD (ρ = 0.13; p = 0.037). Pelvis BMD was significantly related to Castelli index (ρ = 0.15) and LDL/HDL index (ρ = 0.18; p < 0.015 in both cases). Multivariate analysis showed that the association between the serum lipid panel and BMD was independent of liver function and body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, BMD was directly related to total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in heavy alcoholism. This counter intuitive observation adds to others derived from several similar studies conducted in different population groups but not in alcoholics as of yet. The mechanisms that explain the association between serum lipids and bone metabolism need further investigation.

Prognostic value of physical function tests and muscle mass in elderly hospitalized patients. A prospective observational study.

AIM: To determine the prognostic value for mortality of physical function tests, muscle mass loss, disability and frailty in elderly hospitalized patients. METHODS: We prospectively included 298 hospitalized patients aged >60 years (152 men and 146 women). We assessed comorbidity using the Charlson Comorbidity Index; nutrition by body mass index, midarm muscle area and subjective nutritional score; physical muscle function by handgrip strength, gait speed, standing balance and stand up test; disability using the Barthel test and activities of daily living; frailty by the clinical frailty scale and Fried frailty index; and cognitive impairment by the Pfeiffer test. We assessed 100-day and long-term mortality. RESULTS: We found a high prevalence of malnutrition, comorbidity, cognitive impairment, physical function impairment, disability and frailty. Mortality at 100 days was 15.1%, with a long-term median survival of 989 days. Mortality was significantly related to age, comorbidity, nutritional status, physical function, disability and frailty. Serum vitamin D3 levels were not related to mortality. Independent prognostic value for long-term mortality was shown by: (i) incapacity to carry out any of the walking, stand up and standing balance tests; (ii) male sex; (iii) aged >80 years; (iv) impaired handgrip strength or gait speed; (v) Charlson Comorbidity Index ≥1; and (6) impaired muscle mass of subjective nutritional score. CONCLUSIONS: In elderly hospitalized patients, there is an important role of muscle regarding prognosis, mainly related to physical function, but also and independently regarding muscle mass. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 57-64.

Metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk in diabetic population of El Hierro, Canary Islands / Síndrome metabólico y riesgo cardiovascular en la población diabética de El Hierro, Islas Canarias

Introduction: In the Canary Islands there is a high prevalence of vascular risk factors. Objective: To analyze the clinical characteristics of 300 patients with type 2 diabetes in El Hierro, in the Canary Islands. Methods: Patients were assessed at the Internal Medicine Unit of the hospital from 1982 to 2010, and followed up until December 2014 or until death. The sample is composed of 154 women and 156 men (52%). Results: mean age was 66.40 ± 11.60 years, with an average follow-up time of 11.04 ± 4.93 years, and 80.3% were diagnosed of metabolic syndrome, signifi cantly more frequent among women (86.43% vs74.67%, χ2 = 5.62, p = 0.018). During the follow-up period, 51 patients died and a signifi cant proportion developed new cardiovascular complications, such as heart failure (6.7%), ischemic heart disease (17.3%), atrial fi brillation (14.3%), stroke 7%), or peripheral arterial disease (6.9%). Cox regression analysis showed that, although advanced age was the major factor involved in the development of all these complications and in mortality, low cholesterol levels were related to the development of ischemic heart disease and mortality, results that were not dependent on the consumption of statins (as in other examples of inverse epidemiology). Ethanol consumption was related to the incidence of peripheral arterial disease. Conclusions: Old age was the main factor involved in the development of complications and mortality. In addition, low cholesterol levels were related to the development of ischemic heart disease and mortality.

Introducción: en Canarias existe una elevada prevalencia de factores de riesgo vascular, superior a la del resto de España.Objetivo: analizar las características clínicas de 300 adultos diabéticos tipo II de El Hierro, en el Archipiélago Canario. Métodos: los pacientes fueron valorados en la Unidad de Medicina Interna del hospital entre 1982 a 2010, y seguidos hasta diciembre de 2014 o hasta su fallecimiento. La muestra se compone de 154 mujeres y 156 hombres (52%). Resultados: la edad media fue de 66.40 ± 11,60 años, con un tiempo medio de seguimiento de 11,04 ± 4,93 años, y el 80,3% fue diagnosticados de síndrome metabólico, significativamente más frecuente entre las mujeres (86,43% vs.74,67%; χ2 = 5,62, p = 0,018). Durante el periodo de seguimiento 51 pacientes murieron, y una proporción significativa desarrolló nuevas complicaciones cardiovasculares, como insuficiencia cardiaca (6,7%), cardiopatía isquémica (17,3%), fibrilación auricular (14,3%), ictus (4,7%), o enfermedad arterial periférica (6,9%). Mediante análisis de regresión de Cox observamos que, aunque la edad avanzada fue el factor principal implicado en el desarrollo de todas estas complicaciones y en la mortalidad, los niveles bajos de colesterol se relacionaron con el desarrollo de cardiopatía isquémica y de mortalidad, resultados que no eran dependientes del consumo de estatinas (como en otros ejemplos de epidemiología inversa). El consumo de etanol se relacionó con la incidencia de la enfermedad arterial periférica. Conclusiones: la edad avanzada fue el factor principal implicado en el desarrollo de complicaciones y mortalidad. Además, los niveles bajos de colesterol se relacionaron con el desarrollo de cardiopatía isquémica y mortalidad.

Alpha Klotho and Fibroblast Growth Factor-23 Among Alcoholics.

AIMS: Alcoholism may be a cardiovascular risk factor. Osteocyte derived molecules such as fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) and soluble α Klotho have recently been associated with cardiovascular disease, but their role in alcoholics is unknown. We here analyze the behavior of FGF23 and α Klotho in alcoholics. METHODS: Ninety-seven alcoholic patients were assessed for liver function, presence of hypertension, diabetes, atrial fibrillation, left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), vascular calcifications (assessed by chest X-ray) and nutritional status (lean and fat mass measured by densitometry). We measured plasma levels of FGF-23 and serum soluble α Klotho, using ELISA in 97 patients and 20 age- and sex-matched controls. RESULTS: FGF-23 levels were higher in patients than in controls (Z = 3.50; P < 0.001). FGF-23 (Z = 5.03; P < 0.001) and soluble α Klotho (Z = 5.61; P < 0.001) were higher in cirrhotics, and both were related to liver function, independently of serum creatinine FGF-23 levels were higher among alcoholics with diabetes (Z = 2.55; P = 0.011) or hypertension (Z = 2.56; P = 0.01), and increased body fat (ρ = 0.28; P = 0.022 for trunk fat), whereas α Klotho levels were higher in patients with LVH (Z = 2.17; P = 0.03) or atrial fibrillation (Z = 2.34; P = 0.019). CONCLUSIONS: FGF-23 was higher in alcoholics than in controls, especially among cirrhotics, and soluble α Klotho levels were also higher among cirrhotics. Both were related to liver function impairment, independently of serum creatinine levels, and also showed significant associations with vascular risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes or trunk fat amount in the case of FGF-23, or LVH or atrial fibrillation in the case of α Klotho. SHORT SUMMARY: We report increased values of fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) and soluble α Klotho in cirrhotic alcoholics. Both molecules are associated with liver function impairment, and with some cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, increased body fat, left ventricular hypertrophy and atrial fibrillation independently of serum creatinine.

Síndrome metabólico y riesgo cardiovascular en la población diabética de El Hierro, Islas Canarias / Metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk in diabetic population of El Hierro, Canary Islands

Introducción: en Canarias existe una elevada prevalencia de factores de riesgo vascular, superior a la del resto de España. Objetivo: analizar las características clínicas de 300 adultos diabéticos tipo II de El Hierro, en el Archipiélago Canario. Métodos: los pacientes fueron valorados en la Unidad de Medicina Interna del hospital entre 1982 a 2010, y seguidos hasta diciembre de 2014 o hasta su fallecimiento. La muestra se compone de 154 mujeres y 156 hombres (52%). Resultados: la edad media fue de 66.40 ± 11,60 años, con un tiempo medio de seguimiento de 11,04 ± 4,93 años, y el 80,3% fue diagnosticados de síndrome metabólico, significativamente más frecuente entre las mujeres (86,43% vs. 74,67%; χ2 = 5,62, p = 0,018). Durante el periodo de seguimiento 51 pacientes murieron, y una proporción significativa desarrolló nuevas complicaciones cardiovasculares, como insuficiencia cardiaca (6,7%), cardiopatía isquémica (17,3%), fibrilación auricular (14,3%), ictus (4,7%), o enfermedad arterial periférica (6,9%). Mediante análisis de regresión de Cox observamos que, aunque la edad avanzada fue el factor principal implicado en el desarrollo de todas estas complicaciones y en la mortalidad, los niveles bajos de colesterol se relacionaron con el desarrollo de cardiopatía isquémica y de mortalidad, resultados que no eran dependientes del consumo de estatinas (como en otros ejemplos de epidemiología inversa). El consumo de etanol se relacionó con la incidencia de la enfermedad arterial periférica. Conclusiones: la edad avanzada fue el factor principal implicado en el desarrollo de complicaciones y mortalidad. Además, los niveles bajos de colesterol se relacionaron con el desarrollo de cardiopatía isquémica y mortalidad (AU)

Introduction: In the Canary Islands there is a high prevalence of vascular risk factors. Objective: To analyze the clinical characteristics of 300 patients with type 2 diabetes in El Hierro, in the Canary Islands. Methods: Patients were assessed at the Internal Medicine Unit of the hospital from 1982 to 2010, and followed up until December 2014 or until death. The sample is composed of 154 women and 156 men (52%). Results: mean age was 66.40 ± 11.60 years, with an average follow-up time of 11.04 ± 4.93 years, and 80.3% were diagnosed of metabolic syndrome, significantly more frequent among women (86.43% vs 74.67%, χ2 = 5.62, p = 0.018). During the follow-up period, 51 patients died and a significant proportion developed new cardiovascular complications, such as heart failure (6.7%), ischemic heart disease (17.3%), atrial fibrillation (14.3%), stroke 7%), or peripheral arterial disease (6.9%). Cox regression analysis showed that, although advanced age was the major factor involved in the development of all these complications and in mortality, low cholesterol levels were related to the development of ischemic heart disease and mortality, results that were not dependent on the consumption of statins (as in other examples of inverse epidemiology). Ethanol consumption was related to the incidence of peripheral arterial disease. Conclusions: Old age was the main factor involved in the development of complications and mortality. In addition, low cholesterol levels were related to the development of ischemic heart disease and mortality (AU)

Malondialdehyde as a Prognostic Factor in Alcoholic Hepatitis.

AIMS: Alcoholic hepatitis is a severe complication of alcoholism, associated with high short-term mortality. Although pathogenesis remains obscure, it is generally accepted that lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine secretion with further generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) play outstanding roles. Prognosis is uncertain, and the usually employed prognostic scores do not include variables related to ROS generation. Therefore, this study was performed to assess short-term prognostic value of cytokines, nutritional status, different scores [Maddrey, model for end-stage liver disease (MELD), albumin, bilirubin, INR, creatinine index (ABIC), Lille, Glasgow, MELD-Na, Child-Pugh] and malondialdehyde (MDA, as an indicator of lipid peroxidation) at admission and after 1 week, among patients affected by severe acute alcoholic hepatitis (Maddrey index >32). METHODS: Sixty-two patients affected by severe acute alcoholic hepatitis, for whom we calculated Maddrey, MELD, ABIC, Lille, Glasgow, MELD-Na, Child-Pugh, and determined serum MDA and interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-4, tumor necrosis factor alpha and interferon gamma levels at admission and after 1 week. RESULTS: Twenty-four patients died during the follow-up period. MDA showed a better prognostic accuracy than the aforementioned scores, both at admission and after 1 week. CONCLUSION: Our study supports the importance of including MDA assessment in the prognostic evaluation of patients with alcoholic hepatitis. SHORT SUMMARY: Alcoholic hepatitis is associated with high short-term mortality. Although not included in prognostic scores, lipid peroxidation plays an outstanding role in its pathogenesis. We found that malondialdehyde levels showed a better prognostic accuracy than the usually employed scores. Therefore, it should be included in the prognostic evaluation of these patients.

Atrophy of the corpus callosum in heavy alcoholic patients

Atrophy of the corpus callosum among alcoholics was classically restricted to patients affected by Marchiafava-Bignami (MB) disease. It was further observed in patients with thiamine and/or niacin deficiency, or in alcoholics who had consumed alcoholic beverages for a long period. A 42-year-old alcoholic patient was admitted with a full-blown alcohol withdrawal syndrome. After recovery, unstable gait and marked pyramidal signs were observed. A brain magnetic resonance was performed, which revealed corpus callosum atrophy. At discharge the patient was placed under ambulatory care. Nevertheless, he never attended his appointments and he was readmitted several times with withdrawal syndrome. Repeated MRI studies showed no remarkable changes besides progressive atrophy of the corpus callosum. Indeed, the area of corpus callosum was markedly reduced when compared with that of 20 alcoholics and 5 further patients with Wernicke´s encephalopathy. Therefore, the clinical picture is consistent with classic MB disease, and the more severe atrophy than that observed in the remaining alcoholics suggests that additional mechanisms may play a role in MB disease

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Homocysteine, Liver Function Derangement and Brain Atrophy in Alcoholics.

AIMS: Hyperhomocysteinemia may be involved in the development of brain atrophy in alcoholics. Its pathogenesis is multifactorial. In the present study, we analyse the relationship between homocysteine levels and brain atrophy, and the relative weight of co-existing factors such as liver function impairment, the amount of ethanol consumed, serum vitamin B12, B6, and folic acid levels on homocysteine levels and brain alterations in alcoholic patients. METHODS: We included 59 patients admitted to this hospital for major withdrawal symptoms and 24 controls. The mini-mental state examination test and a brain computed tomography (CT) scan were performed and several indices were calculated. Serum levels of homocysteine, folic acid, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 were determined. Liver function was assessed by Child-Pugh score. The daily consumption of ethanol in grams per day and years of addiction were recorded. RESULTS: A total of 83.6% and 80% of the patients showed cerebellar or frontal atrophy, respectively. Patients showed altered values of brain indices, higher levels of homocysteine and vitamin B12, but lower levels of folic acid, compared with controls. Homocysteine, B12 and liver function variables showed significant correlations with brain CT indices. Multivariate analyses disclosed that Pugh's score, albumin and bilirubin were independently related to cerebellar atrophy, frontal atrophy, cella index or ventricular index. Serum vitamin B12 was the only factor independently related to Evans index. It was also related to cella index, but after bilirubin. Homocysteine levels were independently related to ventricular index, but after bilirubin. CONCLUSION: Vitamin B12 and homocysteine levels are higher among alcoholics. Liver function derangement, vitamin B12 and homocysteine are all independently related to brain atrophy, although not to cognitive alterations. SHORT SUMMARY: Hyperhomocysteinemia has been described in alcoholics and may be related to brain atrophy, a reversible condition with an obscure pathogenesis. We studied 59 patients and found that liver function derangement, vitamin B12 and homocysteine levels are all independently related to brain atrophy assessed by computed tomography, although we found no association between these parameters and cognitive alterations.

Thrombin activation and liver inflammation in advanced hepatitis C virus infection.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with increased thrombotic risk. Several mechanisms are involved including direct endothelial damage by the HCV virus, with activation of tissue factor, altered fibrinolysis and increased platelet aggregation and activation. In advanced stages, chronic HCV infection may evolve to liver cirrhosis, a condition in which alterations in the portal microcirculation may also ultimately lead to thrombin activation, platelet aggregation, and clot formation. Therefore in advanced HCV liver disease there is an increased prevalence of thrombotic phenomena in portal vein radicles. Increased thrombin formation may activate hepatic stellate cells and promote liver fibrosis. In addition, ischemic changes derived from vascular occlusion by microthrombi favor the so called parenchymal extinction, a process that promotes collapse of hepatocytes and the formation of gross fibrous tracts. These reasons may explain why advanced HCV infection may evolve more rapidly to end-stage liver disease than other forms of cirrhosis.

Adipokines, cytokines and body fat stores in hepatitis C virus liver steatosis.

AIM: To identify patients with or without liver steatosis and its severity in treatment-naïve patients affected by hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. METHODS: We included 56 HCV infected patients, and assessed the amount of liver fat by histomorphometry, and its relationships with fat and lean mass at different parts of the body (by densitometry), hormones [insulin, homeostatic model assessment (HOMA)], adipokines (resistin, adiponectin, leptin), and cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6). RESULTS: Although the intensity of liver steatosis is related to trunk fat mass and HOMA, 33% of patients showed no liver steatosis, and this finding was not related to body mass index or genotype. Besides trunk fat mass, no other factor was related to the presence or not of liver steatosis, or to the intensity of it, by multivariate analysis. Lean mass was not related to liver steatosis. Adiponectin levels were lower among patients. No differences were observed in leptin and resistin. CONCLUSION: Steatosis in HCV infection is common (67.2%), and closely related to trunk fat, and insulin resistance, but not with leg fat mass or adipokines.

Liver steatosis in hepatitis C patients.

There is controversy regarding some aspects of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection-associated liver steatosis, and their relationship with body fat stores. It has classically been found that HCV, especially genotype 3, exerts direct metabolic effects which lead to liver steatosis. This supports the existence of a so called viral steatosis and a metabolic steatosis, which would affect HCV patients who are also obese or diabetics. In fact, several genotypes exert metabolic effects which overlap with some of those observed in the metabolic syndrome. In this review we will analyse the pathogenic pathways involved in the development of steatosis in HCV patients. Several cytokines and adipokines also become activated and are involved in "pure" steatosic effects, in addition to inflammation. They are probably responsible for the evolution of simple steatosis to steatohepatitis, making it difficult to explain why such alterations only affect a proportion of steatosic patients.

Bone changes in alcoholic liver disease.

Alcoholism has been associated with growth impairment, osteomalacia, delayed fracture healing, and aseptic necrosis (primarily necrosis of the femoral head), but the main alterations observed in the bones of alcoholic patients are osteoporosis and an increased risk of fractures. Decreased bone mass is a hallmark of osteoporosis, and it may be due either to decreased bone synthesis and/or to increased bone breakdown. Ethanol may affect both mechanisms. It is generally accepted that ethanol decreases bone synthesis, and most authors have reported decreased osteocalcin levels (a "marker" of bone synthesis), but some controversy exists regarding the effect of alcohol on bone breakdown, and, indeed, disparate results have been reported for telopeptide and other biochemical markers of bone resorption. In addition to the direct effect of ethanol, systemic alterations such as malnutrition, malabsorption, liver disease, increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, alcoholic myopathy and neuropathy, low testosterone levels, and an increased risk of trauma, play contributory roles. The treatment of alcoholic bone disease should be aimed towards increasing bone formation and decreasing bone degradation. In this sense, vitamin D and calcium supplementation, together with biphosphonates are essential, but alcohol abstinence and nutritional improvement are equally important. In this review we study the pathogenesis of bone changes in alcoholic liver disease and discuss potential therapies.

Esclerostina y grasa corporal / Sclerostin and body fat

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Vitamina D, riesgo vascular y mortalidad en pacientes alcohólicos / Vitamin D, vascular risk, and mortality in alcoholic patients

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